A naturalistic study of students' perceptions of conflictland power in song/music preferences: Informing theory and praxis in conflict management education1

1. Introduction to the problem and its significance

Research indicates that regardless of course format, students do not automatically see the relation between theoretical material in conflict management education learned in class and its application in everyday communicative situations (Rowan, 1984). Identification of relevant issues that may cause conflict for students in everyday communicative situations is central to the understanding of conflict management theory and to the development and application of conflict management skills. Research identifies students' song/music preferences with these issues (Sherman & Dominick, 1986; Prinsky & Rosenbaum, 1987; Zillman & Mundorf, 1987).

Since Plato's Republic, philosophers have expressed concern about the effects of music in education. Russell (1945) contends that music was more broadly interpreted by Plato, meaning ". . . everything that is in the province of the muses" (p. 109). This interpretation of music was almost as wide as is culture today.

Today, researchers investigating the influence of popular music on social and interpersonal interactions present conflicting views. Some researchers are concerned that contemporary music contributes to conflict and violence and interferes with academic achievement and the socialization process in education. Other researchers cite the positive aspects of contemporary music as instrumental in the socialization of youth and thus beneficial to academic achievement. However, research on the relationship between music and conflict does not explore students' perceptions of conflict in song/music preferences as a potential source for informing theory and praxis in conflict management education.

Popular music is an extremely sensitive indicator of the temperament and preoccupations of people (Kingman, 1979). Since primitive times, song and music have been an emotional expression of individual and cultural conditions (Bowra, 1962). The emotional expressions may be harmonious or conflictual. This harmony or conflict may exist between the individual and his or her gods, within the individual, or between man and woman, good and evil, kinship systems, or political and economic powers (Bowra, 1962). Its wide range of subjects and themes may be useful to educators in helping students understand social and interpersonal conflict, increase awareness of conflict management options, develop conflict management skills, and apply these skills in everyday communicative situations. As the preferred medium of the young, music is an instrumental element in simultaneously shaping and expressing their perceptions of reality (Considine, 1986). Exploring in the classroom, the students' perceptions of conflict in song/music preferences could inform theory and praxis in conflict management education.

This approach is supported by information processing theories. According to Mayer (cited in King, 1990), when individuals engage in cognitive activities such as noting relationships among ideas and linking new information with old, "they are making internal connections between those ideas and making external connections between these ideas and their previous learning" (p. 667). Thus, the use of students' perceptions of conflict that may be reflected in song/music preferences, in combination with textual material, should assist this "connection making" in the classroom and its applicability to students' everyday communicative situations. Continues Mayer (cited in King, 1990), "making these internal connections causes learners to organize the material in meaningful ways, while making external connections helps them to integrate the new information into their existing knowledge structures. Both of these processes enhance encoding and retrieval of the new material" (p. 667). The retrieval in everyday communicative situations of theoretical material learned in class about conflict management may be enhanced through the connection making students do between this theoretical material and their perceptions of conflict and power in their song/music preferences.

This chapter presents the purpose of the study, definitions of key terms used in the study and the research questions that guided the study. Chapter II reviews literature relevant to the study. Lightfoot's (1983) portrait approach to data presentation is used in presenting Phase I in Chapter III, and Phase II in Chapter IV. Summary discussion and implications of results appear in Chapter V.

Purpose of the Study.

The purpose of this naturalistic study was to investigate the applicability of students' perceptions of conflict in their song/music preferences to informing theory and praxis in conflict management education. Perceptions of conflict identified in song/music preferences were used to try to increase students' understanding of conflict dynamics, conflict management options, and the applicability of these options to everyday communication situations. It was intended that increased understanding of conflict management dynamics as perceived through their song/music preferences might assist students in connecting theoretical material learned in class and its application to everyday communicative situations by asking such questions as: "Who is in conflict?; What is the conflict about?; What type of conflict is it?; What power sources are being drawn upon?; and What conflict management strategies are being used?" Such questions were intended to lead to awareness of alternate conflict management options and the applicability of these options to everyday communicative situations.

Research Questions.

Three questions guided this study:

1. Do college students perceive expressed conflict in their song/music preferences?
2. If college students perceive expressed conflict in their song/music preferences, do they identify personal conflicts with these expressions?
3. How (if at all) can college students' perceptions of conflict in song/music preferences inform conflict management education in such a way as to increase students' and teachers' awareness of conflict management options that may be applicable in everyday communicative situations?

Additional questions emerged in this study and are discussed in Chapters III and IV.

Definitions of Key Terms.

The terms defined here are descriptive of conflict dynamics and conflict management and are largely drawn from Verderber & Verderber (1989), the course text used in the study. The definitions of types of power are from French & Raven (1953, cited in Verderber & Verderber, 1989).

Extended definitions of terms in the text are shown in parentheses. These terms and their definitions are reflected again in Chapters III and IV as initial categories and defining rules consistent with Glaser & Strauss (1967).

Conflict

A clash of opposing attitudes, desires, interests, ideas, behaviors, goals, and needs (Verderber & Verderber, 1989, p. 264). (An expressed struggle between at least two interdependent parties who perceive incompatible goals, scarce rewards, and interference from the other party in achieving those goals.)

Kinds of conflict

• Pseudoconflict. A false conflict that appears to be real presents an either/or orientation.
• Content conflict. A conflict which is concerned with message accuracy, and may be over:
  1. a fact
  2. an interpretation of a fact or inferences drawn from a series of facts
  3. a definition
  4. a choice among goals, actions, or means of achieving goals.
• Ego conflict. A conflict which occurs when parties to the conflict view winning or losing as a measure of their expertise).

Values

Values are the cluster of attitudes or beliefs that provide a frame of reference for evaluating the worth of an object, situation, or behavior ).

Value conflict. A conflict resulting from a difference in views of life.

Types of Conflict Management

• Withdrawal. Physically or psychologically withdrawing from the situation (avoidance).
• Discussion. A consideration of the pros and cons of a situation (prosocial).
• Surrender. Giving in immediately to a situation to avoid a conflict.
• Aggression. Physical or psychological coercion to get one's way. (May be direct or indirect).
• Persuasion. Attempts to change the attitude or behavior of another.

Power

Represents the potential to influence another because of the authority one has been granted by society (p. 239). (position and possession).

Types of Power

Legitimate power. The right of a person to influence another because of the authority he or she has been granted by society (p. 239). (position and possession).

Reward power. Power derived because a person is capable of providing things desired by others by bestowing monetary, physical, or psychological benefits (p. 249). (knowledge, skill, credibility, interpersonal attractiveness, physical strength, position, and possession).

Coercive power. Power derived from the capability one has of punishing others, either physically or psychologically -usually takes the form of a threat (pp. 240 241). (knowledge, skill, credibility, interpersonal attractiveness, physical strength, position, and possession).

Expert power. Power derived from having more information or skill in a given area than do most other people (p. 241).

Referent power. Power derived from the potential to influence others because they respect the one attempting to influence. It increases the value of the other bases of power (p. 242). (knowledge, skill, credibility, and interpersonal attractiveness).

Power balance in relationships

The relative power possessed by the parties which is based on interdependency in a relationship. The distribution of this power determines the direction and nature of interactions (p. 243). Power status was defined at three levels: 1) high; 2) low; and 3) equal.

Issue

In this study, issue means any point of dispute in a conflict.

Song/Music

Any song/music preferred by the students. That is, the song/music that students select for themselves, and choose over other types of song/music.

Limitations of the Study.

The conclusions drawn from analysis of the data, and method of data analysis are subject to the limitations of the paradigm. The primary limitation of this specific study was the lack of instructional classroom time allotted the researcher. Further limitations of the present study are discussed after presentation of the findings.

2. Review of the Literature

As discussed in Chapter I, this study investigated students' perceptions of conflict and power in song/music preferences and their applicability to informing theory and praxis in conflict management education. This chapter is organized in the following way. The first area, provides an orientation to key research on the paradigmatic transition from the positivistic to postpositivistic paradigms and traces the roots of ethnography to cultural anthropology. In the second area, an historical background of conflict theories is established to show how these theories influence conflict management education. In the third area, more recent research on conflict shows the complexity of conflict and contrasts paradigms and methods used to investigate that complexity. In the fourth area, research on song/music in relation to conflict is examined. In the fifth area, definitions of culture provide context for understanding song/music as a medium of cultural expression. In the sixth area, references on journal writing and on the use of the student as a curricular informant are examined. Finally, a brief summary of the study is presented.

Areas Reviewed.

Paradigmatic Orientation

The reader is referred to Kuhn (1970), Rosenblatt (1978), Zukav (1979), Capra (1982), Lincoln & Guba (1985), and Weaver (1985) for an examination of the paradigmatic reformulation, or transition from the positivistic to postpositivistic. The roots of ethnography lie in cultural anthropology (Malinowsky, 1922; Pelto & Pelto, 1978). Researchers by whom ethnographers are guided in theory and practice include Glaser & Strauss (1967); Spradley & McCurdy (1975); Schwartz & Jacobs (1979); Spradley (1979); Hammersley & Atkinson (1983); Taylor & Bogdan (1984); Lincoln & Guba (1985); and Patton (1990). Lincoln & Guba (1985, pp. 36 38) contrast axioms underlying positivistic and naturalistic research paradigms:

Axiom 1: (ontology) refers to the nature of reality. The positivist version posits a single tangible reality comprised of independent variables that can be predicted and controlled; the naturalist posits multiple constructed realities calling for holistic inquiry to achieve understanding (verstehen).

Axiom 2: (epistemology) refers to the relationship of knower to known. For the positivist, discrete dualism exists between the object of inquiry and the inquirer; the naturalist recognizes the knower and known as inseparable.

Axiom 3: (generalization) refers to the possibility of generalization. The purpose of inquiry for the positivist is to develop generalizations (or truth statements) that are time and context free; for the naturalist, the purpose is to develop working hypotheses that describe context specific cases.

Axiom 4: (causal linkages), refers to the attribution of causality. The positivist explains action as an effect of earlier cause; the naturalist does not distinguish cause from effect in that entities are seen as engaged in mutual, simultaneous shaping.

Axiom 5: (axiology) refers to the role of values in inquiry. Positivists elect objective methodology to ensure value free inquiry; the naturalist's inquiry is value bound with values expressed in choice of study, paradigm, substantive theory, context, and congruence between these choices.

Magoon (1977) examines a constructivist theme toward educational research. The chief assumption held by the constructivist perspective toward complex human behavior is that subjects being studied must "at a minimum be considered knowing beings, and that this knowledge they possess has important consequences for how behavior or actions are interpreted" (pp. 651-652). And, a constructivist approach amounts to ". . . a refocusing of educational research on another part of the schooling phenomena and consequently taking an approach to it that is called ethnographic; that is, an extensive descriptive and interpretive effort at explaining the complexity" (p. 652). Constructivists posit that individuals in their societies develop constructs the same as individual scientists and scientific communities and that social and behavioral scientists "can and should study both this process as well as the end product" (p. 263). Wax, Diamond & Gearing (1971) present anthropological perspectives on education and examine the complexity of educational contexts.

Basics of Conflict Theories

An historical background of conflict and the search for harmony between extremes can be found in Pythagoreanism which taught that a union of opposites existed within the human being (Boas, 1929). "As the order developed this notion grew until the whole world seemed to be a similar suspension of opposition" (p. 10). According to Boas (1929), Aristotle said the world was divided by primitive Pythagoreanism into "pairs of opposing qualities, ranged in two columns, a good and a bad" (p. 10). The good side consisted of ". . . the soul, the odd, the limit, the one, the right, the male, the unmoving, the straight, the light, the square" (p. 10). The bad side consisted of ". . . the body, the even, the unlimited, the many, the left, the female, the moving, the curved, the dark, and the oblong" (p. 10). Unless this opposition could be resolved, thought the Greeks, the world would "fall in two" (p. 10). Through adjustment of strings on a Greek lyre by the Pythagoreans, harmonious notes were discovered and considered "means between extremes, and the lyre seemed to be a `harmony of opposites'" (p. 11). Thus, the mathematical mean, and the ethical mean of the golden rule were derived from this search for harmony between extremes.

Basics of conflict theory are examined by Collins (1975): The cynical realism about human society of Machiavelli and Hobbes where individuals' behavior is explained in terms of pursuing self interests in a world of threat and violence with organized coercion the foundation of social order. The cynical realism stance has an ideological dimension combined with socially created power struggles designed to aid parties to the conflict by increasing their control over the situation. Marx's theory of conflict is based on principles of stratification of property, mobilization, and mental production which equate determinates of social and political power. To Marx's theory of stratification, Weber adds "the means of emotional production" (p. 58). In Weber's theory, emotions are seen as a weapon that can be used in conflict, and where emotional rituals are used to dominate a group and emotional solidarity is used to strengthen one group's opposition toward another group. Thus, Collins (1975) sees Weber's insight as parallel to those of Durkheim, Freud, and Nietzsche where emotions are manipulated through rituals in the control and domination of social interaction. Capra (1982) examines conflict within the context of cultural transformations brought about through paradigmatic shifts between the Newtonian World Machine view and the New Physics. Hartshorne (1983) debates Schopenhauer's depiction of nature "as a scene of endless struggle and conflict, each against all" (p. 190). For Hartshorne, ". . . conflict is between instances of creative freedom . . . the risk and probability of some conflict is the price of free existence, and for some of us this means the price of existence" (p. 190). Thus, the intricacies of conflict analysis and the complexities of conflict in interaction are reflected in myriad conflict theories.

Research on Conflict and its Complexity

The complexity in conflict management education is illustrated by the diversity of topics addressed in the literature. For example, Chua & Gudykunst (1987) have examined the influence of culture on interpersonal conflict resolution styles. The relationship of gender to conflict resolution strategies has been explored by various researchers (Schockley-Zalabak & Morley, 1984; Canary & Spitzberg, 1987; Papa & Natalle, 1989). Given the complexity of conflict, it is important to examine how researchers investigate the management and resolution of conflict. Most research approaches to conflict management are quantitative, and employ instrumentation that superimposes behavioral categories from stylistic models upon respondents. For example, Wall & Galanes (1986) adopt Bales' (1980) SYMLOG (SYstematic Multiple Level Observation of Groups) to explore its functional viability as a quantitative research tool in small group conflict. Schockley Zalabak & Morley (1984) use the Thomas Killmann (1974) Conflict Mode Instrument, and Chua & Gudykunst (1987) use Putnam & Wilson's (1982) Organizational Communication (OCCI) Instrument. Monroe, Borzi, & DiSalvo (1989) state that this approach to the study of conflict represents a classic case of premature closure. Having gained prominence in the positivistic research paradigm through repeated use over time, these stylistic models preclassify conflict behaviors in idealized ethnocentric situations and do not allow data classification to emerge from the emic perspective. The emic data are defined as data that emerge from the respondent's perspective, and expressed in their own language. Pelto & Pelto (1978, p. 68, cited in Patton, 1990, p. 393), caution that categories must emerge from the emic perspective rather than be imposed through etic (ethnocentric) classifications. Such instruments simply cannot reflect the constructions of the respondents, but only of the instrument maker (Lincoln & Guba, 1985, p. 239).

Harre & Secord (1973, cited in Monroe, Borzi, & DiSalvo, 1989), suggested that behavioral scientists must move from the mechanistic and rational methods of analysis to more human oriented methods. They argued that theory building regarding human interaction should begin with the respondents' perceptions of what is important and what causes the problems they experience in their day to day lives. This view concurs with Lincoln & Guba's view (1985) that, ". . . specific working hypotheses that might apply in a given context are best verified and confirmed by the people who inhabit that context (p. 4). "Naturalistic researchers prefer to negotiate meanings and interpretations with the persons from which the data are drawn because it is their constructions of reality that the inquirer seeks to reconstruct" (Lincoln & Guba, 1985, p. 41).

Rushing (1984) combined qualitative research with the teaching of interpersonal communication where student researchers were asked to define interpersonal communication relationships based upon their precommunicative definition of the relationship; observations of how verbal and nonverbal tactics altered the relationship definition; and their post communication definition of the relationship. In this study, the researcher and student researchers examined conflict in interpersonal communication based on struggles for power advantages in defining interpersonal relationships. In this study, the definition of the relationship is based on rules theory where the actors in the relationship define the relationship based on a priori communication rules, i.e., the power in the relationship is inherent in pre established rules, where the actor who is aware of the rules can choose compliance or manipulation of the rules and thus has the power advantage over the unaware, "rules violator" in defining the relationship. This approach appears not to acknowledge the role of multiple perceptions in defining the relationship, and manipulates informants in the study.

The present study acknowledges multiple perceptions of conflict dynamics. It offers students an opportunity to examine conflict dynamics from an integrated, holistic perspective and respects the right of participants to define relationships without manipulating others. In the present study, students personally associate with lessons learned about conflict management education. The present study engages students in qualitative research in which they learn research methods and the application of theoretical concepts, i.e., conflict management options in everyday communicative situations, as does the Rushing study.

Taba (1962, pp. 45 46) addresses the impact of conflict on cross cultural socialization in education and speaks to the need for new methods and techniques for dealing with social and individual conflicts. This increasing need to teach conflict management theories and management approaches in education is recognized in the annotated bibliographies of Charnofsky (1987) and Cheatham (1989).

Song/Music in Relation to Conflict

Students' involvement with diverse types of music has been extensively connected to conflict and violence in the literature (Sherman & Dominick, 1986; Prinsky & Rosenbaum, 1987; Zillmann & Mundorf, 1987; Hansen & Hansen, 1990). Sexual and violent content in music videos has been documented through content analysis by Brown & Campbell, 1986; Waite & Paludi, (1987, cited in Hansen & Hansen, 1990); Hansen & Hansen, 1989). In The Hurried Child, Elkind (1988), examines the influence of popular music on young peoples' attitude toward drug use and violence against women.

". . . while there is no evidence to suggest that there is a correlation between the two, heavy metal, like other forms of popular music, does run the risk of hurrying young listeners to be prematurely concerned with issues that are not yet real for them, and glamorizing drug use, fast cars, and easy sex" (p. 92).

Funkhouser & Shaw (1990) posit that continual viewing of such music videos can result in "limited contact with, and a superficial view of, one's own inhabited environment" (p. 84). Aufderheide (1986) examines the feelings of instability that ill defined product messages in music videos stimulate in American youth. Other research suggests that heavy involvement with popular music conflicts with adherence to adult norms of academic achievement Coleman (1961, cited in Larson & Kubey, 1983; Burke & Grinder, 1966). Such studies typically seek a cause effect relationship between music and conflict, and do not address the pedagogical potential of music. While the importance of perception in conflict situations has generally been recognized, students' perceptions of conflict that may be reflected in song/music preferences and their pedagogical implications for conflict management education, have not been explored. Identification of relevant issues that may cause conflict for students in everyday communicative situations is central to the understanding of conflict management theory.

Popular music is an extremely sensitive indicator of the temperament and preoccupations of people (Kingman, 1979). Since primitive times, song and music have been an emotional expression of individual and cultural conditions (Bowra, 1962). The emotional expressions may be harmonious or conflictual. This harmony or conflict may exist between the individual and his or her gods, within the individual, or between man and woman, good and evil, kinship systems, or political and economic powers (Bowra, 1962). Honigsheim (1989) examines sociological perspectives of the role and function of music in relation to culture and society. Considine (1986, pp. 251 259) considers music the preferred medium of the young and an instrumental element in simultaneously shaping and expressing their perceptions of reality.

Definitions of Culture

Since Plato's Republic, philosophers have expressed concern about the effects of music in education. Russell (1945) contends that music was more broadly interpreted by Plato, meaning ". . . everything that is in the province of the muses" (p. 109). This interpretation of music was almost as wide as is culture today. Tylor's (1871) all-inclusive definition of culture (cited in Hunter, 1978) considers "that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society" (p. 7). Spradley & McCurdy (1975) emphasize that any definition of culture implies a theory with implicit assumptions about human beings, and that which definition one uses depends "not upon its correctness, but its purpose and usefulness" (pp. 4-5). In Goodenough's (1957) definition of culture (cited in Spradley & McCurdy, 1975) the cognitive dimension of experience is emphasized: "Culture is the acquired knowledge that people use to interpret experience and to generate social behavior" (p. 5). This definition has human experience and behavior as products of symbolic meaning systems as its underlying assumption. Frake (1977, cited in Spradley, 1979) defines culture as "a set of principles for creating dramas, for writing scripts, and of course, for recruiting players and audiences" (p. 7). Culture, according to this definition is not simply a cognitive map which people acquire the knowledge to read. Rather, people are the map makers, using the charts of everyday life in map making. By restricting the definition of culture to shared knowledge, behavior, customs, objects, and emotions are not eliminated, but their meaning is emphasized; thus defining culture as a system of meaningful symbols (Spradley, 1979). Spradley & McCurdy (1975) define a symbol as "any object or event that has been assigned meaning" (p. 20). This perspective is generally known as symbolic interactionism.

Initial works from which symbolic interactionism stems include those of John Dewey (1930, cited in Taylor & Bogdan, 1984); Charles Horton Cooley (1933, cited in Taylor & Bogdan, 1984); and George Herbert Mead (1938). Blumer's (1969) interpretation of symbolic interactionism is helpful in understanding how multiple realities of persons are constructed from their experiences within symbolic meaning systems. The root images on which symbolic interactionism is grounded "refer to and depict human groups or societies, social interaction, objects, the human being as an actor, human action, and the interconnection of the lines of action" (p. 6). The concept of culture must be derived from what people do. Social structure must be represented by social position, status, role, authority, and prestige. These terms refer to how people act toward each other within their relationships. Direct experience then, comes from interacting with each other (Dewey, 1934). These interactions that "effect stability and order are rhythms" (p. 16). Out of these rhythms, balance and counterbalance are created. Malinowsky (1922) states that the social and cultural environment in which people move forces them to think and feel in a definite manner. Further that "these ideas, feelings, and impulses are molded and conditioned by the culture in which we find them and are therefore an ethnic peculiarity of the given society" (p. 22). According to Malinowsky, the ethnographer's goal is to grasp the insider's view of their culture. In this study, students were asked to provide the "insider's definition of the situation," their perceptions of conflict and power in song/music preferences. One way in which they were asked to provide their insight into their perceptions of conflict and power was through journal writing.

Journal Writing and the Curricular Informant

Britton (1975, cited in Fulwiler, 1987) writes that when people write about new information and ideas- in addition to reading, talking, and listening -they learn and understand them better" (p. 5). Emig (1977, cited in Fulwiler, 1987) posits that "when people learn things, they use all of the language modes to do so- reading, writing, speaking, and listening; each mode helps people learn in a unique way" (p. 5). This study is consistent with Harste, Woodward, & Burke (1984) in that it advocates the use of the student as research and curricular informant.

Summary.

This chapter reviewed research on the paradigmatic transition from the positivistic and postpositivistic paradigms and the origins of ethnography in order to provide paradigmatic context in which the study was conducted. The literature review on conflict was reviewed from pythagoreanism to the more current research of today. This review provided an historical background of conflict theory and contrasted paradigms and methods used to investigate conflict and its complexity . It was seen that the study of conflict has been approached from the cause-effect perspective that presents conflict dynamics as discrete and separate elements. Other research that was reviewed calls for a holistic approach to the study of conflict. The literature found that any effort to teach conflict management must find a way to identify issues that are relevant to students and that will help them connect the theoretical material learned in class about conflict management with its application to everyday communicative situations. Further research identified song/music as one such issue. An examination of song/music in relation to conflict revealed diverse perspectives on the influence of song/music on behavior, its role and function in society, and as a medium of emotional and cultural expression. Definitions of culture were reviewed in the literature in order to see what then is expressed through the medium of song/music. In this review, it was found that the literature does not address the pedagogical potential of song/music for teaching conflict management.

The literature on journal writing and use of respondent as curricular informant support the use of this method in the present study. Therefore, the present study explores whether students' understanding of conflict management can be increased through writing about their perceptions of conflict and power in song/music preferences in conjunction with theoretical material learned in class about conflict and its management. Results of Phase I appear in Chapter III. Results of Phase II of the study conducted in the Spring, 1992 are presented in Chapter IV.

3.Phase I: Fall, 1991

The purpose of the study was to inform theory and praxis in conflict management education through students' perceptions of conflict and power in song/music preferences. During the Fall of 1991, Phase I was conducted on a collaborative basis in an interpersonal communication course at a small liberal arts university in the southwest. Conflict management was a curriculum unit in this course.

Identification of issues that are relevant to students is central to their understanding of conflict management by helping them see the relation between theoretical material learned in class and its application to everyday communicative situations. Research identifies song/music preferences with these issues. The literature suggests cause effect influences of song/music preferences. These effects have previously been discussed in Chapter II. However, the research does not address the potential of students' perceptions of conflict and power in song/music for informing theory and praxis in conflict management education.

The naturalistic paradigm posits that meanings and interpretations are best negotiated with the persons who inhabit the context. Emerson (1983, p. 24, cited in Taylor & Bogdan, 1984) writes that: "Thick descriptions present in close detail the context and meanings of events and scenes that are relevant to those involved in them" (p. 124). This study explored contexts, issues, and associative events perceived in song/music preferences, documented in journals, and interpreted by informants as relevant in connecting theoretical material learned in class about conflict management education with its applicability in everyday communicative situations. Taylor & Bogdan (1984) recommend grounding the writing in specific examples and illustrative quotations. Examples and quotations presented here reconstruct informants' perceptions of events and their meanings as a means of informing theory and praxis in conflict management education. Following illustrations of categories, Lightfoot's (1983) portraiture approach is used to show how students integrated conflict dynamics through writing about their perceptions of conflict in song/music preferences. In integrating concepts about conflict dynamics, students demonstrated in their writing understanding of conflict management options and the willingness and ability to suggest alternatives between conflict management options. Some of the students project potential outcomes of the application of these alternative options.

Method.

Context and Respondents

Sixteen undergraduate students enrolled in an interpersonal communication course in which conflict management was a curriculum unit were respondents in this study. The collaborating classroom professor offered participants twenty bonus points for participation in Phase I. Other bonus point options were not offered to students.

Special Informants. Because of their special interest in this study and their expertise, three special informants who were not students in this course, but who were students at this university, voluntarily participated in Phase I and in Phase II of the study. These informants provided expertise from three perspectives: One student was a music/math major with special knowledge of song and music; one student, a disc jockey, was a mass communication major with special knowledge of the history and genre of music and was especially sensitive to song and music as a medium of expression. One student provided intercultural insight into the meaning of music to a Native American.

Procedure

Through lecture and participant discussion, the researcher taught the unit on managing conflict. This unit included: definition of conflict, types of conflict, power sources in conflict, and conflict management options. Through lecture and discussion, the researcher presented an orientation to music as a preferred medium of expression. Students were told that the purpose of the research was to explore teaching conflict management through students' perceptions of conflict and power in song/music preferences and the recording of their perceptions in journals.

Data collection

Participants were asked to keep a journal in which they would:

1. describe their perceptions of conflict (if any) in their song/music preferences.
2. make connections between the conflict dynamics they perceived in their song/music preferences and the textual material on conflict management presented in class.
3. bring to these connections issues and associative events from their experiences in everyday communicative situations. Associative events or experiences mean events or experiences in participants' lives with which they associate in song/music preferences.
4. describe the context in which their listening occurred.
5. discuss, if they chose, what attracts or repels about the song/music preference.
6. any other comments they may choose to share.

Song/music preferences were not dictated to students. When and how much they wrote depended upon their listening habits. However, they were to write in the journal at least once a week. They were to meet with the researcher at least once a week for member checks. During these member check interviews, the researcher attempted to check her interpretation of each of the respondent's prior entry(ies) with the respondent. If participants did not perceive conflict in song/music preferences, they were to state that in their journals. Confidentiality of the journals and responses during interviews was guaranteed.

Materials/Text/Instrumentation.

Verderber's & Verderber's (1989) text Inter-Act, was adopted for the course in which Phase I was conducted, and was the text used in Phase I. The text was used by students in conjunction with journal keeping of their perceptions of conflict dynamics in song/music preferences to facilitate learning about conflict and its management. Consistent with Fulwiler (1987, p. 177), the journals offered students an active and concrete means of participating in the text. A conflict analysis instrument (O'Donnell, 1983) (Appendix A) was used to supplement the text. This instrument was developed by the researcher and classmates in a special topics in research in media at the University of North Texas. This instrument assists students in defining and understanding conflicts by asking such questions as: "Who is in conflict?; What is the conflict about?; and What type of conflict is it? What power sources are being drawn upon? What conflict management strategies are being used?" The instrument was not used to establish intercoder reliability.

Trustworthiness

Requirements for trustworthiness were met through triangulation of data from multiple sources. These sources included respondents' journals, textual material (Verderber & Verderber, 1989), the supplemental instrument (Appendix A), song/music content, field notes, unrecorded observations of participants by researcher and member checks. Primary sources used for triangulation were respondents' journals, member checks with the respondents, and the course text. The text was used as a data source in that students' perceptions of the textual material was a source of evidence in triangulation. Diesing (1972, cited in Lincoln & Guba, 1985) speaks to contextual validation as comparing and evaluating from two different sources for the purpose of correcting patterns of distortion between sources. Thus, the text was used to check students' perceptions of conflict dynamics between the text, song/music preferences as recorded in the journals, and expressed in the member check interviews. Peer debriefing with on campus colleagues and through telephone contact with the dissertation committee chair and other members of the doctoral committee were also measures taken to insure trustworthiness.

Although students were enthusiastic about the project, their shyness precluded audiotaping the member check interviews. Respondent Maria Sanchez privately taped her analysis of the song/music preferences. In this case, the analysis tape was used for triangulation with the respondent's journal and the text. The text was used to establish contextual validation. As a major feature of the learning assignment context, as defined by Diesing (1972, pp. 147 148, cited in Lincoln & Guba, 1985, pp. 305 306), it was used to identify and correct patterns of distortion, i.e., inaccuracies in students' perceptions of conflict dynamics as presented in their journals and in the text. Field notes were recorded immediately following member checks because of: 1) the discomfort of the respondent with the researcher recording field notes while interviewing during member checks; and, 2) the eagerness and enthusiasm of the participants in sharing their song/music preferences and their perceived applicability to the study precluded keeping indepth field notes. While students were eager to share their song/music preferences, they were shy and uncomfortable in having the researcher record their comments either in writing or in audiotaping.

Students' journal keeping was both process and product oriented. Students and researcher shared the process of learning and discovery and sought response rather than evaluation. Formative evaluation can be seen in the journals through the connections between theoretical material learned in class and conflicts perceived in song/music preferences. Because this writing began in an exploratory dialogical situation, students came to understand that although the researcher was, through institutional necessity placed in the examiner's role, the researcher's concerns and interests in the topic and in discovery through partnership were genuine (Fulwiler, 1987, p. 52). Although the journals were not graded, the researcher was responsible for ensuring the students and the collaborating professor that the twenty bonus points were earned by and fairly credited to, the students. Thus, the researcher is described as being in the examiner's role. Although the researcher did not dialogue with students through written responses in their journals, discussions between students and researcher about their journals, as well as the internal dialogue students had with themselves leads the researcher to define the journals as dialogic.

Data Analysis

Journals were collected once a week and analyzed for responses to the six instructional items (also shown under Data Collection):

1. What were the conflicts (if any) participants perceived in their song/music preferences?
2. What were the connections between the conflict dynamics students perceived in their song/music preferences and the textual material on conflict management presented in class?
3. What issues and events from their experiences in everyday communicative situations did students associate with conflict dynamics presented in class and in the text that may have made the theoretical material learned in class about conflict management more relevant in everyday communicative situations?
4. Did students identify and describe the contexts in which their listening occurred?
5. Did they choose to discuss what attracts or repels about their song/music preferences?
6. Did they make other comments about their participation in the study, and if they did, what were those comments?

Analysis of responses to these items was guided by the primary research questions that provided focus for the study:

1. Do college students perceive conflict in their song/music preferences?
2. If college students perceive conflict in their song/music preferences, do they identify personal conflicts with these perceptions?
3. How (if at all) can college students' perceptions of conflict in song/music preferences be used to inform theory and praxis in conflict management education?

Sampling

Using the logic of intensity sampling (Patton, 1990, p. 171), six journals were selected that manifested the phenomena of interest intensely by providing information-rich examples of the phenomena under study. The "phenomena under study" are students' perceptions of conflict in song/music preferences, the associations between these perceptions and personal experiences, and the relevance of these perceptions and associations to the theoretical material learned in class about conflict dynamics.

To facilitate archival retrieval, journals were indexed by name. Fictitious names were assigned to protect respondents' identity. Respondents' journals were assigned a code number, page numbers, and line numbers. Thus, 01.01.05 denotes respondent number one, page one, line five of that journal. In reproducing the journals in computer entries, the journal formats were reproduced consistent with the writing style of the informant, e.g., itemized conflict elements without discussion or narrative style. The journals were edited for misspelling and punctuation, while maintaining the natural language of the respondent. The examples from students' journals are intended to illustrate connections that students made between theoretical material learned in class about conflict management and perceptions of conflict they perceive in song/music preferences. The examples do not imply that these were the only connections a student made. These examples are also intended to illustrate the depth of student's involvement in the research effort.

Categorization

Glaser & Strauss (1967, pp. 36-37) acknowledge that categories can be borrowed from existing theory provided that the data are continually studied to make certain that the categories fit. These authors advocate emergent categories so that "round data" are not forced into "square categories" (p. 37). Taylor & Bogdan (1984) caution that data should not be forced into existing frameworks; however, they do say that "if concepts fit your data, do not be afraid to borrow them" (p. 135). Initial categorization of data from the study takes its lead from Glaser & Strauss (1967) who are generally credited with coining the term grounded theory, and who maintain that grounded theory is one that will "fit the situation being researched, and work when put into use" (p. 3).

By fit these authors mean that the categories must be readily and not forcibly applicable to and indicated by the data under study; and by work they mean that they must be meaningfully relevant to and be able to explain the behavior under study. Thus, these authors maintain that the concepts fit and work are essential criteria for judging whether a theory can be considered to be grounded.

Following the lead of Glaser & Strauss then, categories from the instructional text, or literary categories, were initially used because they best fit and worked for the phenomena under study. The constant comparative method was used in fitting data to these categories. Rules defining the categories were based on literary properties (definitions) of the categories (Verderber & Verderber, 1989) and the supplemental instrument (Appendix A). These sources were consulted in assigning data to these categories (Lincoln & Guba, 1985, p. 341). The constant comparative method was also used in defining emergent categories that "clarify and validate what's going on" (Schwartz & Jacobs, 1979, p. 29). Two kinds of categories were thus abstracted: those constructed by the researcher, i.e., etic categories, and those determined by the responses of respondents (emic categories) which reflect their local language and cultural covering terms and concerns. As the students became more involved in the research and began to adapt their language to the textual language, it may be that the same data could be delegated to both an emic and etic category. Although as noted above, the data were initially examined in establishing etic categories, i.e., or literary, textual categories, all the data were examined for their fit into both etic and emic categories. That is, emic categories were not established with "left over" data. Taylor & Bogdan (1984) recommend using illustrative quotations and clear examples of research findings as evidence that, "things are the way you report them to be" (p. 154).

Lincoln & Guba (1985) state that since qualitative data will ultimately be produced in naturalistic inquiry, statistical manipulations have little relevance in data analysis. These authors state that what is at issue is the best means to make sense of the data, and to lead to "maximal understanding of the phenomenon being studied in its context (in the sense of verstehen)" (pp. 224 225). Results of this study are presented in a way that will make sense of the data by providing illustrative examples in the respondents' own language. Etic and emic categories are presented with clear examples drawn from students' journals that illustrate the fit between categories and data. Lightfoot's (1983) portraiture approach to data presentation incorporates clear examples and quotations from students' journals and is intended to illustrate how participants integrated (or did not integrate) concepts about conflict dynamics in their writing. Illustrations also show how writing about their perceptions of conflict in song/ music preferences increased students' awareness of conflict management options. Students' awareness of conflict management options is illustrated through their suggestions of better ways of managing conflicts.

Literary (Etic) Categories and Defining Rules (Definitions)

For clarity, the reader is reminded that the terms, literary etic categories and defining rules are descriptive of conflict dynamics and conflict management and are drawn from Verderber's & Verderber's (1989) course text Inter-Act. Power categories are from French & Raven (1953, cited in Verderber & Verderber, 1989).

Types of Conflict

1. Pseudoconflict. "A false conflict that appears to be real. Pseudoconflict exists when people think that the attainment of separate goals is incompatible when in fact attainment is possible" (Verderber & Verderber, 1989, p. 264).

Example: 04.46.25

• SMP: It's Now or Never
• Artist: Elvis Presley
  • ". . . he's issuing an ultimatum . . . and the person at the other side of this conflict can only withdraw or surrender. He leaves room for no other option in the matter."

2. Content conflict. "A conflict concerning message accuracy is known as content conflict and can take several forms:

• A. The conflict may be over a fact.
• B. The conflict may be over an interpretation of a fact or an inference drawn from a fact or series of facts.
• C. The conflict may be over a definition.
• D. The conflict may be over a choice among goals, actions, or means of arriving at goals" (p. 265).

Example: 04.07.02 30

• SMP: Dem Bones Gonna Rise Again
• Artist: The artist is not cited.
  • Mr. (Brown) has confused historical fact with his own religious doctrine. I quickly reminded him that Christ is not mentioned in this song and if his intention was to acquaint the children with historical events that perhaps he should wait til spring, since that's the time of year in which Christ was born.

3. Value Conflict. "A value conflict represents a difference in views of life in general (or of an aspect of life) that is brought into focus on a particular issue. A value, then, serves as a frame of reference to determine the relative worth of any object, situation, or behavior" (p. 265).

Example: 01.11.03 14

• SMP: Wham! Rap '86
• Artist: Wham!
  • Conflict within him over holding a job and not having one. He thinks you'll rot in a job (have fun) yet he seems a little concerned about it threatening his manhood . . . I totally disagree with him. Work is very important, yet one should still have fun. Responsibility and fun should be balanced. He has gone to an extreme.

4. Ego Conflict. "Ego conflict occurs when the people in conflict view "winning" or "losing" the conflict as a measure of their expertise, personal worth, or image. In such situations the content of the conflict becomes less important than the egos of the people involved. Ego conflict represents the most difficult kind of conflict to manage" (p. 266).

Example: 01.04.03 13

The ego conflict is not specifically stated, but is identified by example:

• SMP: Do You Know, Do You Care:
• Artist: Phil Collins
  • The conflict is between him and a woman. She uses verbal aggression and revenge on him. His power is low. He gives his self esteem to her by acting like a child like she is.

Patterns of Managing Conflict

1. Withdrawal. "Entails physically or psychologically removing oneself from the situation" (p. 267). (Avoidance)

Example: 05.02.01 02

• SMP: Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds
• Artist: The Beatles
  • John Lennon or Paul McCartney sings about a place where there is no conflict whatsoever. But inside there is a conflict. He uses drugs to withdraw from the conflict. When he comes back to reality, he finds that the problems are still there.

Example: 01.03.04 29

• SMP: Ride on Time
• Artist: Black Box
  • Conflict between a woman in love and time (time can destroy a relationship). Withdrawal psychology. The woman pretends she can control the progression of time. No resolution is reached. She'll just escape reality thru her imagination.

2. Discussion (prosocial) "Consists of a verbal weighing and considering of the pros and cons of the issues in conflict" (pp. 270 272).

Example: 05.07.01 12

• SMP: No Rest for the Wicked
• Artist: Ozzy Osbourne
  • This song basically talks about him being worshipped by the millions of his fans. He's saying to his fans not to idolize him because he feels that he can't live up to what they think of him. I think that this song is an example of an ego conflict because in the past Ozzy has portrayed this wicked person that wants you to kill yourself and in the song lyrics he says to his fans "I don't want to be your hero, I don't want to ever let you down." It seems that he is trying to solve his problem through the discussion method. He weighs the good and bad points of his music.

3. Surrender. "Means giving in immediately to avoid conflict" (p. 269).

Example: 04.01.04-16

• SMP: When A Man Loves A Woman
• Artist: Michael Bolton
  • Inner conflict between the rational self and emotions . . . in effect he becomes enslaved to the object of his affections by surrendering his powers of reason . . . he becomes a non entity. So that he uses two methods of coping with the initial conflict -surrender of his powers of reason to his emotion; and withdrawal because through the absence of his sense of reason he avoids a conflict between his feelings and his better judgement.

4. Aggression. "The use of physical or psychological coercion to get one's way" (p. 270).

Example: 02.06.23

• SMP: Behind the Wall
• Artist: Tracy Chapman
  • This song tells the story of people who are heard yelling and screaming at some neighbors. The police says he's trying to keep the peace but by this time its too late because a woman's been beaten so badly. The man who does the beating would have coercive power because he's capable of beating the woman.

5. Persuasion. "An attempt to change either the attitude or the behavior of another person" (p. 270).

Example: 01.05.12 26

• SMP: Hand to Mouth
• Artist: George Michael
  • The conflict is between people and their poverty-hookers, adoption, suicide, loss of faith and hope for change. One person tries to persuade the government to help the rest surrender also- they just say this is my situation and I can't change it.

Sources of Power

Power and Influence. "Power represents the potential to influence others" (French & Raven, 1953, cited in Verderber & Verderber, 1989, p. 238).

1. Legitimate Power "Occurs when a person has the right to influence another because of the authority he or she has been granted by society" (p. 239). (position and possession)

Example: 06.04.02 15

• SMP: First Love
• Artist: Petra
  • This song talks about our loving Savior who is our first love, and will forgive us our mistakes. God has legitimate power, and in some ways, reward power (eternal life is definitely first prize!)

2. Reward Power. "When a person is capable of providing things for other people that they desire to have- derives from the ability or potential ability of one person to bestow monetary, physical, or psychological benefits on another person" (p. 240). (knowledge, skill, credibility, interpersonal attractiveness, physical strength, position, and possession)

Example: 04.05.01 17

• SMP: Nutra System Jingle
• Artist: Television Commercial
  • ". . . this jingle seems to imply that obesity is psychosomatic; and that if you call the number given they'll tighten the screws loose in your head so that you'll quickly revert to a skinny way of thinking . . . they mention a small amount of money and suggest that you can lose all the weight you want for that teeny, tiny sum.

3. Coercive Power. "Occurs when a person is capable of punishing others, either physically or psychologically" (pp. 240-241). (knowledge, skill, credibility, interpersonal attractiveness, physical strength, position, and possession)

Example: 02.09.03 30

• SMP: Blue Dress
• Artist: Depeche Mode
  • This conflict involves verbal aggression. The words say `Put it on and don't say a word.' I'd suppose the power source would be physical strength, because he is a man and he's saying do this! Its weird how when hearing the song you don't think of the man as being mean because he's not going to hurt the woman, he just wants to see the dress on her. Quite confusing.

4. Expert Power. "Exists when a person has more information or skill in an area than do most other people" (p. 241). (knowledge, skill, and credibility)

Example: 02.02.16 19

• SMP: Behind the Wall
• Artist: Tracy Chapman
  • I suppose the policemen would be the power figures in this scenario. They have the "Expert Power" because what they say goes no matter what.

5. Referent Power. "Exists when a person has the potential to influence others because they respect the one attempting to influence. This type of power increases the value of the other bases of power" (p. 242). (knowledge, skill, credibility, and may also be interpersonal attractiveness)

Example: 03.03.01 11

• SMP: A Hard Rains a'Gonna Fall
• Artist: Bob Dylan
  • This tune is a good example of physical and verbal aggression. The song was written by Bob when he thought it was his last day to live because of the Cuban Missile crisis. That conflict definitely had both aspects of aggression. Dylan is a good power source because when you listen to the lyrics he creates images that challenge our existence; a definite part of knowledge.

Power balance in relationships. "Based on interdependency in a relationship--and when equally distributed is likely to be more satisfying for both members because each person will influence the nature and direction of their interactions" (p. 243). In this study, power status was defined at three levels: 1) high; 2) low; and 3) equal.

Example perception of low power: 06.02.08 19

• SMP: Mine Field
• Artist: Petra
  • The devil is the god of this world, and this song describes our life as a walk through a mine field. If we keep the Lord as our guide, we will be safe, but otherwise . . . the world seems to have more power and more sources of it, because Christians don't grasp their power, they merely attempt to avoid the situation.

Example of Equal/Shared Power: 01.04.06 05-08

• SMP: Something to Save
• Artist: George Michael
  • Conflict between him and an ex girlfriend. The power is shared . . . he isn't forcing anything (feelings, choices, etc.) on her.

Example of High Power: 01.04.06-05-08

• SMP: You've Got No Hold
• Artist: Chuckie P.
  • . . . he demonstrates high power. He breaks away from the devil's influence through position/possession (being strong in God).

Issues are central in the design of conflict management strategies.

Spradley (1979, cited in Lincoln & Guba, 1985) suggests that "domains--categories--may be names for things, cover terms and relationships" (p. 340). Lincoln & Guba (1985, p. 342) state that knowledge of properties makes it possible to write a rule for placement of data into categories. Categories that emerged from the data of respondents were based upon the concepts and properties of issues, or domains of concern. The following general categories based on their rules were established:

Abstracted (Emic) Categories

Educational. Concern with lack of personal power in formal educational process, curriculum, and practices.

Example: 06.03.01 28

• SMP: King George
• Artist: White Heart
  • This song discusses the conflicts of Christians with today's society. This conflict affects me as a student. It frustrates me to go to my classes and have to hear humanist theories, without any opposing views. I don't, in many cases, have facts to confront these theories.

Political. Concern with political pressures, persons, outcomes, or legislative influence or process.

Example: 03.02.18 27

• SMP: Good-bye Blue Skies
• Artist: Pink Floyd
  • The lyrics of this work speak to the possibility that one day there will be no more views of the blue sky because of the way we are destroying the earth, e.g., war. The main personal conflict this inspires in me is the fear that it might happen. It makes me want to do something to change our deathly direction.

Spiritual. Concern with spiritual welfare of self or others.

Example: 01.03.1-11

• SMP: You've Got No Hold
• Artist: Chuckie P.
  • He breaks away from the devil's influence through position/possession (being strong in God).

Economic. Concern with economic status of self or others.

Example: 03.03.23-29

• SMP: Snowblind Friend
• Artist: Steppenwolf
  • His song is a story of a person who has one dollar to his or her name -and they spend it on cocaine. Instead of looking for drug rehabilitation, they avoid the problem with a quick high.

Rational. Concern with loss of rationality of self or others.

Example: 04.01.02-24

• SMP: When a Man Loves a Woman
• Artist: Michael Bolton
  • ". . . inner conflict between the rational self and emotions . . . it further suggests that he'll go to any lengths to avoid any conflict with his rational self--that he completely surrenders his sense of reason to the emotion that is apparently leading to his self destruction simply because it feels good."

Physical. Concern with physical status of self or others.

Example: 01.06.17-07.09

• SMP: Look at Your Hands
• Artist: George Michael
  • . . . conflict between him and an ex lover, who is now abused. He tries to make her see her situation, she is blind to it. He wants her back. Management is prosocial. He explains her situation to her. Yet at times he is a little verbally aggressive--a little unempathetic--"I bet you don't like your life now." Power is medium. He may be able to make her leave the abuser for him by telling her to look at what's happening. Yet it is totally her choice. There is no resolution. He still is trying to get her back; she's still with the abuser.

Parental. Concern with parental acceptance and acknowledgment.

Example: 02.03.02

• SMP: Hide Away
• Artist: Erasure
  • It's a double conflict because first of all its between a person and himself and you know, like things that he's going through because of the fact that he's gay. And it also tells of the conflict he's having between himself and his parents, because they don't seem to understand or want to accept him for what he is.

Dominance. Concerned with dominance over another.

Example: 02.01.25 (audiotape transcript) 02.04.03 31 (journal)

• SMP: Crybaby
• Artist: Madonna
  • This song, I think, the woman has some sort of coercive power because she is capable of punishing this man psychologically, because of the way that she's putting him down because she's making fun of the way he is and she's not appreciating him for who he is.

Racial. Concern with differential treatment and/or racial separateness.

Example: 03.04.26-05.05

• SMP: Southern Man
• Artist: Neil Young
  • This song alludes to the terrible treatment given to Blacks in America's history. The conflict is managed by verbal aggression. Neil is basically speaking out at the past and even the present. In a way he is warning that revenge may be apparent in the future.

The following journal summaries are intended to show how respondents integrated the theoretical concepts about conflict dynamics in their writing about their perceptions of conflict and power in song/music preferences.

Awareness of Multiple Options through Integration of Concepts

Carolyn.

Carolyn St. John draws from "Do You Have a Problem with That" by male vocalist, Chuckie P. to show her interpretation of a value conflict a young man (the artist) has with others because they judge his Christianity. Carolyn perceives that this young man is using the prosocial conflict management option to manage the value conflict, ("He stands up for his belief"), yet she recognizes that the young man is leaning toward verbal aggression as a management option. Thus, Carolyn demonstrates awareness of conflict management options, and recognizes subtle dimensions between these options. She interprets the artist as having high power status in this conflict; his power source is his interpersonal attractiveness. In "Things that Make You Go Hmmmm," by C & C Music Factory, Carolyn perceives value conflicts and ego conflicts between the sexes. She cites avoidance as the conflict management option. She recognizes that the problems in each situation are not solved in the song, and that participants in the conflict do not suggest solutions. She sees that both men and women in each conflict situation in the song believe they are being treated unfairly. They display low power: "They get mad or hurt by the other's actions, yet do nothing." In this example, Carolyn demonstrates awareness that avoidance as a conflict management option is not, in her opinion, the best choice because no resolutions are reached. Carolyn is able to recommend alternative options: "The best would be thru an outside party or prosocially." The distinction that is made here between "outside party," and "prosocial" as conflict management options is that "outside party" can be seen as prosocial management, but refers to consultation with a third party, e.g., a mediator such as a minister or counselor, while "prosocial management option" refers to discussion between the conflicting parties. The prosocial management option as discussion is illustrated by Carolyn in "Freedom '90" by George Michael, which is a song about a conflict between Michael and his fans. The type of conflict is not specifically cited in this example, but Carolyn is able to describe the conflict. Michael uses the prosocial management option of discussion: "He explains his feelings then sticks up for them." He displays high power status through the power sources of position and possession. He is sure of his position and possesses personal confidence and demonstrates this by standing up for his new choices "whether or not others agree." Carolyn interprets this conflict management approach as "resolution with himself" because: "He doesn't back away from his personal choices." He says: "It may not be what you want from me, that's the way it's got to be." In George Michael's "Something to Save," Carolyn identifies the prosocial conflict management option in a conflict she perceives between Michael and an ex girlfriend with whom he wants to remain on good terms: "He is expressing his feelings and reasons why it is the best choice for them to be friends." In the dissolution of this relationship, a specific type of conflict is not cited. The power status is shared, because "he is not forcing anything (feelings, choices, etc.) on her." Carolyn believes that he "basically reaches resolution," but she interprets some reluctance on his part in that "he wishes he could change her, but that he isn't trying to [force change]."

Carolyn again indicates awareness of avoidance as an ineffective conflict management option in "Ride on Time" by Blackbox. In this example, Carolyn perceives and identifies an ego conflict between a woman and time. The woman in love fears losing her man to time. Carolyn demonstrates understanding of the basis of the conflict in her parenthetical statement: "Time can destroy a relationship." Carolyn identifies avoidance as: "The management option is withdrawal psychology; the woman pretends she can control the progression of time." Carolyn explains that: "In not being able to control her situation in the way she wishes, the woman demonstrates low power, and thus does not reach a resolution, she'll just escape reality (through her imagination)."

In a journal entry dated October 31, Carolyn integrates multiple conflict management options and makes a personal association in an ego conflict that she perceives in and interprets through writing about the song "Battlestations" by Wham! The ego conflict is interpreted as "they both play head games and the only thing that holds them together is sex." The management options are verbal aggression, "they argue all the time . . . [and] he calls her a baby;" and revenge, "he reads her diary;" and avoidance, "she won't pick up the phone, she lets the answering machine take his calls." Carolyn interprets verbal aggression as the best mode of management in this conflict because: "At least he's getting his anger out (expressing it) even if it's not prosocial." Carolyn identifies a shared power status through skill (lovemaking skills) and comments, "no communication skills here." Her personal association is stated as: "I saw my uncle in many such relationships--it's disgusting."

In a journal entry dated October 25, the polar continuum of good vs. evil is evident in Carolyn's interpretation of an ego conflict or value conflict (she isn't sure of this distinction) in Chuckie P.'s "You've Got No Hold," a "conflict between good and evil--him and the devil." In this conflict, the management option is an outside party (mediator) who is God, and the man in the song demonstrates high power through the power source of position/possession interpreted as his being strong in God, which helps him break away from the devil's influence. Carolyn repeats this song/music preference in a journal entry dated October 30, five days later. In this entry, Carolyn interprets the song as being "about the resolution," in a conflict between the artist and Satan. She restates the conflict management option as assertiveness: "He just says no way, you can't control me." The artist's power status remains high in that "the devil can't control him now. He has power in God." In this interpretation, the resolution is his power: "He just decides God is the only way. His faith keeps him from being controlled by Satan." Continuing this religious theme in an entry dated November 1, Carolyn interprets a conflict in "I Commit" by Margaret Becker. Carolyn does not cite a type of conflict, but describes the conflict as: "Her conflict is a final decision to serve God or not." She interprets the conflict management as prosocial, in that the woman in the song doesn't get angry, "she makes a rational decision." Carolyn notes that prosocial as being "one of the best ways to handle a conflict," thus indicating awareness of multiple conflict management options. Carolyn interprets the woman as having high power status: "She has the ability to make a wise decision through her knowledge of God." The woman in the conflict resolves the conflict "through her decision to serve God and live her life for him." In this entry, Carolyn makes a personal association with this conflict: "This is an example of a struggle I am dealing with--do I want to commit myself to God, act as a Christian, believe as a Christian?

Carolyn acknowledges difficulty in identifying a conflict management option in "A Different Corner" by Wham! The conflict is between a man and his continued feelings for the woman:

He hurts, yet can't let go of his love for her (and what they had). Management is difficult to figure out because he doesn't lean toward a positive or negative side . . . he is just confused . . . part of him says `who cares,' and the other [part of him] is thankful for the experience. The man's power status is cited as low because, `he can't let her go, but he can't resolve his feelings.'

In the song "In Too Deep" by Phil Collins, Carolyn describes a conflict between him and his lover in which the relationship seems to be dying without either party being at fault: "It's just the way it is." Carolyn hears the man expressing great pain: ". . . crying at the top of my lungs and no one listening." She interprets the prosocial management option because: "He explains his feelings, his actions, and he sounds apologetic." Carolyn indicates her involvement in the interpretation of this song/music preference: "As I listen longer and more closely, it sounds as if he loved her more than she loved him." The power status of the man is cited as high because he knows that "he must do what is right for him." Carolyn perceives that the man does resolve the conflict: "By the end [of the song], I feel like he's ended this pain for himself . . . this song is his closure." In writing about a conflict involving a triangle relationship in "One or the Other" by Paula Abdul, Carolyn cites the prosocial management option when one girl "stands up for herself, tells him her feelings, but isn't hurtful (even if he is a scum)." Thus, Carolyn demonstrates sensitivity to others and awareness that standing up for oneself does not necessitate hurting the other party. She recognizes that there is no resolution for the man until "he makes up his mind." However, she perceives the woman as being able to handle any decision the man makes. In this analysis, Carolyn indicates that writing about her perception of conflict in the song/music preference helped her realize the importance of prosocial conflict management interpreted as self-esteem: "It makes me see how important self-esteem and assertiveness are." She continues to make distinctions between conflict management options in identifying persuasion and avoidance in "Why Can't It Wait 'Til Morning?" by Phil Collins. In this song/music preference, the conflict isn't clearly stated, but whatever it is, "she [the woman in the song] wants to discuss it now, he doesn't." In this conflict, the management is through withdrawal (avoidance) and persuasion, because "he doesn't want to think about it now," but he uses persuasion in saying, "I just want to hold you close to me . . . I just want to sleep . . . stay here with your arms around me." Carolyn interprets persuasion as the most effective management option in this song: "There's a lot of persuasion by being romantic." Carolyn perceives shared [equal] power between the man and woman in this conflict. She recommends an alternative option for the woman in the conflict: "She doesn't have to go along with his persuasions, she can state she wants to talk now." Carolyn recognizes that "it may not work," but that the woman "will have some control over events." In this analysis, Carolyn indicates awareness that the conflict is not resolved, as well as her involvement in the analysis through the questions she asks at the end of the entry, "Do they work it out? Does just holding her solve it all?" Carolyn empathizes with the man's approach, and reiterates her recommendation: "I can understand his desire to deny, avoid conflict, especially thru trying to be close . . . it seems like a good solution, but talking is always the best."

Maria.

In addition to her journal, Maria Sanchez provided an audiotape of her analyses of her perceptions of conflict in song/music preferences. Her willingness to do so, and the depth of her analyses on the audiotape, demonstrate her involvement with the research. This summary integration of concepts about conflict dynamics is taken from her journal entries and from her elaboration upon these entries that she provides on the audiotape.

In Tracy Chapman's "Behind the Wall," Maria perceives and describes a violent domestic conflict involving the police: "The song tells the story of people who are heard [by neighbors] yelling and screaming." She demonstrates awareness of multiple conflict management options by identifying verbal and physical aggression, third party (mediator) intervention and avoidance as the management options. The third party is the police who are called to intervene in the conflict, where a man is beating a woman. Maria perceives that the policemen use avoidance in managing this conflict: "It's a domestic affair and the police don't want to deal with it." Maria demonstrates that she recognizes the outcome of this avoidance option: "The song tells how later on an ambulance comes and then the police[man] says he's trying to keep the peace but by this time it's too late because a woman's been beaten so badly." In this conflict, Maria recognizes the policemen as the power figures and she identifies their type of power: "They have the `Expert Power' because what they say goes no matter what." Maria distinguishes between power types: "The man who does the beating would have `coercive' power because he's capable of beating the woman." Maria demonstrates involvement in this scenario by extending the conflict to include herself. She indicates how the listener [herself] becomes a party to the conflict, ". . . and the conflict is between the police and the listener, because I get so angry knowing those men let crime go on and don't care." Thus, Maria identifies the policemen's delay (avoidance) as not caring, and this not caring attitude makes her angry. Maria also demonstrates involvement with analyses of her perceptions of conflict in Madonna's "Something to Remember." Maria interprets this song as being about a love that was never to be and expresses her involvement in her statement: "It makes me so sad, because this tells of a woman who really loves a man but is never able to have a relationship with him." She makes a personal association with this song: "This happened to me when my boyfriend broke up with me and it was not in my power to get him back." In this analyses, Maria recognizes that while conflict can be painful, it does not have to be bad: "This conflict is not necessarily bad even though the woman's hurt." Maria comments that conflict can occur without "the man being really mean." Maria does not perceive power sources in this conflict: "There isn't really a `power' figure in this conflict. It's just a conflict of love lost without the man being really mean." Thus, Maria approaches awareness of the healthy transitional aspects of conflict. Maria continues her personal association with her perceptions of conflict in song/music through her analyses of "Pictures of You" by The Cure. In this analysis, Maria perceives an internal conflict [intrapersonal] which she describes in the audiotape analyses as "it's just like confusion," and in her journal entry as being "more like loneliness." This internal conflict is created by the absence of her boyfriend who "is in school at Stanford." She personally associates with this conflict through her statement, ". . . and this hits close to home once again because my boyfriend's far away and all I have right now [are] the pictures to look at." Maria does not perceive power in this conflict: "There's not really a source of power." However, she does establish awareness of different power sources: "This has nothing to do with money or power." She recommends that "the only way this conflict could be resolved is for them to see each other." Maria chooses Sarah Brightmann's "Think of Me," to demonstrate her perception of a conflict between characters in the song, although she indicates that she is not sure what the conflict is about, " . . . so I guess its some sort of conflict in that relationship . . . I don't really know the situation." She identifies the participants in this conflict as Christine and Raoul from Phantom of the Opera. Maria perceives that Christine uses the prosocial mode to manage the conflict because "she talks through the problem" in asking Raoul to remember her. Maria identifies the power source as interpersonal attractiveness. Maria perceives the conflict as being resolved because "in the end they're both happy and the love is together again." The conflict is resolved "when the male's voice [Raoul] comes in and says, `I will remember you." Maria does respond to how this conflict relates to her life: "This song relates to my life because I like romance." In her perceptions of a conflict between two lovers in the song "A Little Respect" by Erasure, Maria perceives the man in the song to be using the prosocial conflict management option because "the singer tries to make peace by giving simple comments." Maria recognizes that "the other party doesn't respond." Maria recommends that the conflict could be resolved through the prosocial conflict management option of discussion: "It seems maybe if these folks would discuss their problem, they could be happy."

James. James Kelly is reminded of an inner conflict which he perceives in "Ripple" by The Grateful Dead. He relates this conflict to his personal life, ". . . when the lyrics speak of being alone and watching the water roll on the shore, I am reminded of inner [intrapersonal] conflict." He continues: "The scene is much like the one I might withdraw to when I'm home and have a personal problem to be worked out." Thus, James demonstrates that he recognizes withdrawal [avoidance] as a conflict management option which he uses in problem solving. James recognizes the role of third parties in conflict from a different perspective; not that of mediator, but as instigators of conflict: "The song also reminds me of conflicts instigated by third parties." In reference to third parties as instigators, James uses an analogy to show how influences of conflict spread: "Just as a rock creates ripples in the water, so do others promote ripples of a different sort across the land."

James personally relates to the conflicts that he perceives in "Our House" by Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young: "The lyrics speak of the epitome of the all American family . . . this was not my family situation; and I'm glad." He continues: "While I grew up in [a] progressive home, I was constantly bothered by the 'typical family.'" He does not elaborate upon how he was bothered by the typical family, nor does he identify specific conflicts. He expresses his views of the typical American family: "I think it retards evolution within the American framework." James continues to express awareness of conflict, without elaboration upon the types of conflict. In "Redemption Song" by Bob Marley & the Wailers, James is reminded of the "plight of the Blacks in history." He identifies physical aggression: "It addresses the issues of slavery and beatings." He states that these issues are synonymous with conflicting viewpoints, but doesn't clearly identify whose viewpoints. In Pink Floyd's "Good bye Blue Skies," James expresses a "main personal conflict this [song] inspires in me is the fear that one day there will be no more views of the blue sky." He describes aggression through his statement, ". . . because we are destroying the earth, e.g., war." Thus, James demonstrates awareness of potential outcomes of aggression as a conflict management option without specifically stating this awareness. James demonstrates his involvement with this perception of conflict: "It makes me want to do something to change our deathly direction." James becomes more text specific in identifying conflict management options in Bob Dylan's "A Hard Rain's a'Gonna Fall." He states: "This tune is a good example of physical and verbal aggression." The song was "written by Bob when he thought it was his last day to live because of the Cuban Missile Crisis." He reiterates his awareness of verbal and physical aggression: "That conflict definitely had both aspects of aggression." James begins to identify power sources in this example: "Dylan is a good power source because when you listen to the lyrics he creates images that challenge our existence; a definite part of knowledge." Thus, James demonstrates awareness of knowledge as power, and Dylan as the source of that power. James continues to demonstrate awareness and integration of the concepts of conflict dynamics in Dylan's "The Times They are a'Changin'." In this song, James demonstrates awareness of avoidance as a conflict management option: "To me, he [Dylan] comments on how the world is always evolving, yet there are those who don't want it to happen." Avoidance is used when, ". . . they want to avoid new experiences." James recognizes how avoidance in this situation may "produce verbal or physical aggression, depending on the rigidity of their avoidance." Thus, James demonstrates awareness that effectiveness of avoidance as a conflict management option is contingent upon how and when it is used. James perceives avoidance in Steppenwolf's "Snowblind Friend," a song about a person who spends all of his money on cocaine. "This signals avoidance in that person." In this example, James suggests an alternative conflict management option: "Instead of looking for drug rehabilitation, they avoid the problem with a quick high." James identifies a type of power in this example: "This musical group has correct [expert] power to speak to this issue because they have seen friends in situations similar to this one." James demonstrates awareness of multiple conflict management options without specifically citing applications of these options in Neil Young's "Only Love can Break Your Heart." In this song James is reminded of avoidance, revenge, verbal, and physical aggression. He interprets the song as "the song talks about how trouble can cause you problems, but only love can injure your heart." James demonstrates awareness of the complexities of relationships: "In love, it seems to me that many variances of conflict management take place because of the complexities of relationships."

Juanita. Juanita Reynosa perceives and identifies an inner [intrapersonal] conflict in Michael Bolton's, "When a Man Loves a Woman." She describes the conflict as an "inner conflict between the rational self and emotions," thus reflecting the polar continuum of rationality vs. subjectivity.

This song suggests that the feel of love sometimes comes into conflict with a man's common [sense] and leads him to do things that are illogical and contrary to his physical and emotional well being.

Juanita describes this loss of rationality as: "He becomes enslaved to the object of his affections by surrendering his powers of reason." Juanita demonstrates awareness of multiple conflict management options: "Surrender of his powers of reason to his emotion and withdrawal because through the absence of his sense of reason he avoids a conflict between his feelings and his better judgement." She describes the consequences of these conflict management options as: "In essence, he becomes a non entity." Juanita elaborates upon these consequences, ". . . he'll go to any lengths to avoid any conflict with his rational self . . . he completely surrenders his sense of reason to the emotion that is apparently leading to his self destruction." Juanita supports this perspective with lyrics from the song:

I don't know who wrote the lyrics of this song, but I can't help wondering if it was the same person responsible for the anti drug commercial where the narrator says, `Finally, a perspective on what it's like to use cocaine from the inside'- and then there's a man inside a little vial full of white powder."

Juanita further elaborates on her perception of the consequences of avoidance and withdrawal as conflict management options in this perceived conflict:

Obviously, he invites conflict in every other area of his life, (health, physical comfort, financial security, self esteem, other personal relationships, and would rather engage in a losing battle with these rather than face and resolve the inevitable conflict between his rational self and his emotions.

She supports these perceptions through the lyrics:

Juanita perceives that a man and a woman are experiencing intrapersonal conflict between the intellect and emotions, and a value conflict in Wilson Phillips' "Release Me." Juanita describes the woman's conflict as intrapersonal because the woman in the song, the speaker, is describing a fear that she has faced and conquered:

Her mind tells her that the relationship is not conducive to her own happiness and that it must be dissolved. But she fears the pain that may come with the change and questions whether or not she'll have the courage to see it through.

Juanita perceives the woman in the song empathizing with the man in the song [the woman's lover] because he is experiencing the same inner conflict and is unable to resolve the conflict. Juanita perceives rationality emerging as triumphant in the struggle between reason and emotion: "Her own reason has emerged the winner in the struggle between her heart and mind." Juanita demonstrates awareness of prosocial management:

The woman in the song realizes that in order to resolve her intrapersonal conflict and make the change she fears, she must help the man resign himself to the inevitable, as she has done. She appeals to his sense of reason in an attempt to persuade him to help her cut the ties between them.

Come on baby--come on baby You know it was time to just let go 'Cause we want to be free But somehow its just not that easy.

In the process of this she gains just enough insight to recognize that she has, of herself, given him a degree of control over her emotions and that she needs only to retract her consent to render him powerless.

Juanita recognizes that with insight, the woman in conflict changes her conflict management option: "Now instead of appealing to his senses through gentle persuasion and reasoning, she is making a demand that he accept the outcome of their last and final conflict."

I'm not going back to you anymore, Finally my weakened heart is healing though, very slow So stop coming around my door! 'Cause you're not gonna find What you're looking for!

But he is left with his own inner conflict and she makes one final attempt to help him end it by showing him the way out of it: Release me, Won't you release me?

Juanita's involvement with her perceptions of conflict in this song seems apparent in her indepth analysis of the song. She perceives multiple conflict management options in the song. However, she does not directly relate the conflict to her personal life. She does demonstrate awareness of the complexities of relationships and the role of power in relationships.

Juanita seems to keep an open mind in describing her perceptions of a value conflict between a man and woman in Elvis Presley's "It's Now or Never": "Apparently, the speaker is trying to persuade an unwilling partner to sleep with him . . . this conflict may have arisen because of a difference in values--or she simply may have a headache."

It's now or never, Come hold me tight. Kiss me my darling, Be mine tonight, Tomorrow will be too late. It's now or never- My love won't wait.

Consequently, although the song gives no indication of what the other person decides to do, has to be negative because the unwilling partner is not given an opportunity to negotiate or even voice her feelings about the matter.

Juanita elaborates upon the consequences of options available to the woman in the conflict: "If she chooses to withdraw the relationship will have ended, and if she surrenders her values will have been compromised; in which case the conflict will undoubtedly resurface." Juanita recommends alternative options: "A much more desirable and productive method of managing this conflict would be discussion. Then each of them would have the opportunity to empathize with the other and come to an agreement suitable to both of them."

Juanita describes the context in which she heard this song. She appears to transfer awareness of conflict management options across contexts:

It's a funny thing, but I never viewed this song in this light before today. What made it come into focus like this is that it was used in a television commercial for a diamond engagement ring. I heard the music from the kitchen and didn't think much of it, but when I casually looked toward the TV, expecting to see something in connection with Elvis, the contradiction between the lyrics and the occasion they were depicting suddenly hit me. I guess that the makers of this commercial want to say, 'if you buy her a diamond she won't have a choice because you'll be meeting her need for material things in a way no one else will,'- you know, create dependence. They must assume that all the men watching are going to propose to Madonna.

As she continues writing about conflict management in her journal, Juanita appears to become more personally involved. She describes a conflict between herself and her daughter, and officials at the school her daughter attends. The conflict begins over song/music content used in the school curriculum to celebrate Christmas. Juanita identifies the song in the conflict as a Negro spiritual, "Dem Bones Gonna' Rise Again." The artist is not cited. She identifies this as a values conflict [although it can be described as a content and fact conflict]. She describes her reaction to the song:

I heard this song the day before I started writing this journal. It made me quite angry and since the conflict that arose between myself and the music teacher has not been resolved as yet I think about it a lot.

My daughter is in the school choir and though I expected that she would be singing some Christmas carols, I was shocked to hear the kids sing this one. I don't remember all the words. But it goes something like this:

God thought he'd make a man --dem bones gonna' rise again He made him of mud and a handful of sand --dem bones gonna' rise again.

I informed the principal of my strong feelings about the separation of church and state and also reminded him of the inconsistency that comes into focus when one considers what the children are learning in their science class. I further stressed the difficult job a parent has in impressing the importance of an education on their children- especially if the educators are inconsistent in what they say.

Juanita acknowledges some satisfaction that resulted from her interaction with the principal: "[Mr. Johnson] the principal, listened and agreed with me somewhat -but I didn't feel as if he really heard what I was saying." Although the principal agreed to "issue a directive that any song with religious connotations should be accompanied with historical data." Juanita does not consider the conflict resolved: "Well, there wasn't much I could do." She demonstrates awareness of legitimate power as a conflict management option at a higher level: "My next step would be to take this matter to the school board." She describes potential consequences of this action: "I'm reluctant to do so because I feel that it won't be settled there either . . . it could blow up to such proportions . . . and I may wind up taking it to the Supreme Court." Juanita continues to demonstrate her involvement with the conflict through her discussion of her feelings about the conflict:

On the other hand I feel strongly that I alone have the right to teach my daughter whatever I believe is true about God and religion- and the notion that `Dem Bones Gonna' Rise Again' does not find place in my religious doctrine. I also feel bullied by members of the Christian community who promote this rather superstitious view of things and that the school is helping them do so. I'm just as offended as they would be if I went to the school and taught the children a song with religious connotations that speaks about God and His process of evolution.

Of using discussion as a conflict management option in this conflict with the school officials, Juanita writes: "Although I was able to control my anger while discussing this matter with the school principal, I've been simmering ever since." The conflict continued: "[Mr. Brown] continues to teach the children Christmas carols and I understand from my daughter that he has not even inferred that these songs have any historical significance." She expresses